Autobiography of sarvepalli radhakrishnan pdf creators

Brill’s Encyclopedia of Hinduism HANDBOOK OF ORIENTAL STUDIES HANDBUCH DER ORIENTALISTIK SECTION TWO INDIA edited by J. Bronkhorst A. Malinar VOLUME 22/5 Brill’s Encyclopedia of Hinduism Volume V: Religious Symbols Hinduism and Migration: Contemporary Communities outside South Asia Some Modern Religious Groups and Teachers Edited by Knut A.

Jacobsen (Editor-in-Chief ) Associate Editors Helene Basu Angelika Malinar Vasudha Narayanan LEIDEN • BOSTON Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Brill’s encyclopedia of Hinduism / edited by Knut A. Jacobsen (editor-in-chief); associate editors, Helene Basu, Angelika Malinar, Vasudha Narayanan.

p. cm. — (Handbook of oriental studies. Section three, India, ISSN ; v. 22/5) ISBN (hardback : alk. paper) 1. Hinduism—Encyclopedias. I. Jacobsen, Knut A., II. Basu, Helene. III. Malinar, Angelika. IV. Narayanan, Vasudha.

BLB75 —dc22 ISSN ISBN 90 04 0 by Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, he Netherlands. Koninklijke Brill NV incorporates the imprints Brill, Global Oriental, Hotei Publishing, IDC Publishers and Martinus Nijhof Publishers. All rights reserved.

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Authorization to photocopy items for internal or personal apply is granted by Brill provided that the appropriate fees are paid directly to he Clearance Center, Rosewood Drive, Suite , Danvers, MA , USA. Fees are subject to change. Printed in the Netherlands Table of Contents, Volume V Prelims Preface List of Contributors Notes for Users Primary Sources Primary Origin Abbreviations Journals and Series General Abbreviations xvii xviii xxxiii xxxv lxviii lxxvii xc Religious Symbols Cakra Symbolic Meanings of the Cakra History Worship of Sudarśana Cakra in New Age Movements Conclusion Colors Color in Medicine, Magic, Metaphysics, and Ritual Elements, Experience, and the Cosmos Colorlessness, Purity, and Transcendence Deities, Devotion, and Iconography Red, Gold, and “Shining”: Vitality, Agni, Rudra, and the Goddess Blue, Black, and “Dark”: Kṛsṇ ̣a, Śiva, and Kālī White and Ash Gray: Soma and Śiva Perspectives on Color Conch Mythology Iconography he Conch as a Sign of Viṣṇu he “Presence” of Viṣṇu’s Conch on Earth Use in Ritual Divine Attributes and Emblems he Term “Emblem” in the Present Context Ornaments Akṣamālā (String of Seeds or Beads Used for a Contemplative Practice) Animal Skin (Carman) Arrow (Bāṇ a, Śara) Axe or Hatchet (Paraśu, Kuṭhāra) Banner, Flag (Dhvaja, Ketu) Begging Bowl (Bhikṣāpātra) Bell (Ghaṇ tạ̄ ) Book, Palm-Leaf Manuscript (Pustaka) Bottle, Waterpot, or Ewer (Kamaṇ ḍalu, Kuṇ ḍikā, Kalaśa, or Bhṛṅgāra) Bow (Cāpa, Dhanus, or Śārṅga) Chisel or Akin Implement (Ṭ aṅka) Cloth (Vastra) Club (Gadā, Lakuṭa; Musala [Pestle]) Cobra (See Serpent) 3 3 4 5 6 6 7 7 9 10 11 11 12 12 13 14 14 14 14 15 15 16 17 18 18 18 19 19 20 20 20 20 20 21 21 22 22 23 © Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, Also available online – BEH, vol.

V vi Table of Contents Conch Shell (Śaṅkha) Dagger (See Knife) Deer (Mṛga) Discus or Wheel (Cakra) Drinking Vessel (Pātra, Pānapātra) Drum (Ḍ amaru [a Small Hourglass-Shaped Drum]; Ḍ hakkā) Earth (Mahī, Dharaṇ i) Elephant (Gaja) Eye (Netra, Nayana, or Akṣa) Fire (Agni, Jvāla) Flag (See Banner) Flute (Veṇ u, Muralī) Fly Whisk (Cāmara) Fruit (Phala) Goad, Elephant Driver’s Hook (Aṅkuśa) Hammer (Mudgara) Head, Bald Head (Muṇ ḍa) Jewel-Filled Vessel (Ratnapātra) Knife or Dagger (Kartari, Kartṛ, or Churī) Liṅga (Sign, Emblem, or Phallus) Lotus (Padma, Paṅkaja, or Kamala) Mace (See Club) Mirror (Darpaṇ a) Money Bag (Mātrābhastrā) Mongoose (Nakula) Moon Crescent (Bālacandra – Young Moon) Noose, Lasso (Pāśa) Parasol (Chattra) Parrot (Śuka; Tam.

Kiḷi) Peacock Feathers (Mayūrapattra, Mayūrapiccha) Pen, Reed Pen (Lekhanī) Phallus (See Liṅga) Plow (Hala) Pot of Riches (Nidhipātra) Radish (Mūlaka) Rooster (Kukkuṭa, Kṛkavāku) Sacriicial Ladles (Sruk or Śruc, Sruva) Serpent, Cobra (Sarpa, Nāga, or Bhujaṅga) Shield (Kheṭaka) Skull, Skull-Cup (Kapāla) Spear, Lance, or Javelin (Śakti, Śūla; Tam.

Vēl) Staf (Daṇ ḍa) Stringed Instrument Resembling a Lute or Stick Zither (Vīṇ ā, Vallakī) Sweet Balls (Modaka) Sword (Khaḍga; Also Asi) hunderbolt or Bolt of Lightning (Vajra) Tooth or Tusk (Danta; Svadanta [One’s Own Tooth or Tusk]) Treasure (See Pot of Riches) Trident (Triśūla, Śūla) Water Lily (Kalhāra or Kahlāra, Utpala, Nīlotpala, or Indīvara) Waterpot (See Bottle) Winnowing Fan (Śūrpa) Wreath or Garland (Mālā) Divine Musical Instruments Musical Instruments Myth, Drama, and Religious Practice Dress and Adornment 23 23 23 23 23 24 24 24 24 25 25 25 25 25 26 26 26 26 26 26 27 28 28 28 28 28 29 29 29 29 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 31 31 32 32 32 33 33 34 34 34 34 35 35 35 35 36 37 43 45 Table of Contents Fire Agni in Comparisons and Metaphors Agni’s Hiding he Trifunctional Fire Sexual and Procreative Heat Gems, Gold, Seed, and Soma: he Multiforms of Fire Concluding Remarks Gemstones he Conventional Properties and Meanings of Gemstones he Origins of Gemstones Diamonds, Pearls, Snake Gems, Emeralds, and Sapphires Crystal Notable Individual Hindu Gemstones Magical, Idolatrous Hindu Gems in the Western Imagination Hair Practices Meanings Liṅga Textual Sources Liṅga in Ritual Iconography Lotus he Lotus and Hindu Deities: Auspiciousness and Generative Power Detachment he Lotus and the Sun Mālā Fresh Flowers and Pūjā Making Mālās: Devotion or Work?

Mudrās Mudrās in heatre Mudrās in Iconography Mudrās in the Tantric Texts and Rituals he Mudrās as States of Consciousness in the Krama New Field and Ancient Echoes Oṃ Oṃ in the Vedas and Upaniṣads Oṃ in Later Literature Regional Traditions Conclusion Prasāda Material Prasāda in Hindu Ritual Prasāda in Vaiṣṇava Contexts Prasāda in Śaiva Contexts Prasāda in Śākta Contexts General Observations on Contemporary Hindu Prasāda Prasāda in Sanskrit Sources Sympathy Prasāda in Classical and Contemporary Terms Rām Literary Sources for Rām and Rāmnām he Purāṇas Tantric Tradition and Literature Medieval Vaiṣṇava Upaniṣads Svāmī Rāmānanda and His Sampradāya he Written “Rām” Rāmnām Banks Sacred hreads Revered hreads in Hindu Rituals vii 50 50 51 52 53 56 57 59 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 65 69 72 72 77 79 82 83 84 85 87 88 89 91 91 92 92 96 97 viii Table of Contents he Sacriicial Cord of the Brahmans he Ascetics’ and Others’ hreads Śālagrāma History of Śālagrāma Worship Kinds of Śālagrāmas Arcā and Śālagrāma Narratives about the Origins of the Śālagrāma Smell he Instinct of Smell and the Character of Odors Important Odors in Hinduism Aromatic Materials and Perfumes Later Developments Sound he Veda as a Paradigm of Holy Sound Brahman in the In advance Ṛgveda he Language Goddess Vāc Mantras, Melodies, and Nonsemantic Sthobas Oṃ in the Upaniṣads Spiritual Hearing and Acoustic Piety in Postvedic Literature Tantric and Devotional Mantras – Mantra Power and Musicalized Devotion Fluid Signs and Sonic Symbols – Language and the Alphabet in Scientiic Contexts he Postvedic Language Goddess and the Alphabet as Primordial Sound Linguistic Metaphysics he Nādabrahman as a Cultural and Transcultural Symbol Svastika Tilaka and Other Forehead Marks Origins of the Label Life-airming and Life-negating Values Concepts of the Deity: Gods and Goddesses Sectarian Traditions Sectarian Marks and heir Connection to Caste and Stage of Life he hree Horizontal Lines of Śaiva Devotees he Sounds of the Sacred Name: Mantra and Interpretation Pilgrimage and Sacrality of Local Places; Physical and Moral Purity Purity: Physical, Ritual, Moral Meditation and the Eye of Wisdom he Auspicious State of Existence Married Conclusion Trees and Plants Important Plants and Trees Ending Vāhanas Vāhanas in Iconography Ajā (goat) Ākhu (mouse, rat) Ananta (“Endless,” “Ininite”; also called Śeṣa) Aśva (horse) Bhāsa (vulture): spot gṛdhra Bhūta (lit.

living being): see Rāvaṇa Gaja (elephant) Gardabha (ass, donkey) Garuḍa (“Devourer”) Proceed (cow) Godhā, godhikā (lizard, iguana) Grāha (crocodile) Gṛdhra (vulture) Hanumān (“Having [Large] Jaws”) Haṃ sa (wild goose) Harin: see mṛga Table of Contents Kabandha (a category of gaṇ a) Kāka (raven) Kāmadhenu (“Wish-fulilling Cow”) Kapota (dove, pigeon) Khara (ass): observe gardabha Kola (boar) Kukkuṭa (cock) Kūrma (tortoise) Mahiṣa (bufalo) Makara (dolphin, crocodile) Maṇ ḍūka (frog) Mārjāra (cat) Matsya (ish) Mayūra (peacock) Meṣa (ram) Mīna (ish): see matsya Mṛga (gazelle, antelope, deer) Mṛtaka (corpse): see śava Nakra (crocodile): see graha Nāga (snake) Nandi (“Rejoicing,” “Gladdening”) Nara (man) Preta (the dead, departed) Rāvaṇa (“Roaring” or “Causing to Cry”) Ṛkṣa (bear) Śārdūla (tiger, lion, panther, leopard) Sarpa (serpent): see nāga Śava (corpse) Śeṣa (“Remainder”) Śikhin (peacock): see mayūra Siṃ ha (lion) Śuka (parrot) Śūkara (boar): see kola Sṛgāla (or śṛgāla; jackal) Śvan (dog) Śyena (hawk) Ulūka (owl) Uṣṭra (camel) Vānara (monkey) Vṛka (wolf ) Vṛsạ n, vṛsạ bha (bull) Yāḷi (leogryph) South Indian Temple Vāhanas ix Vibhūti Yoni Hinduism and Migration: Contemporary Communities outside South Asia Afghanistan Developments in the Late 20th Century Restriction, Religious Persecution, and Expulsion Since he 21st Century – Discrepancies between General Improvements for Muslims and the Precarious Situation of Hindus and Sikhs Summary Australia and New Zealand Australia “Coolie” Diaspora White Australia Policy he Post-Independent Hindu Settlement he Postcolonial and Postmodern Phase x Table of Contents Adaptation Ending New Zealand Canada China Indians in China since the s Religious Practices among the Indian Traders in China Conclusion Denmark he Indian Hindus he Sri Lankan Tamil Hindus Keeping Up Hindu Traditions in a Recent Setting and Under New Circumstances East Africa Social Background Temples and Spiritual Gatherings Conclusion Fiji he Religious Life of the First Generation he Period as a Farming Community Independence and Development of a Political People Conclusion France Gulf Countries Hindu Communities Hindu Traditions Temple Worship Life-cycle Rituals Festivals Oman Together Arab Emirates Bahrain Kuwait Saudi Arabia Qatar Yemen Concluding Remarks Guyana A South Indian–Based Religious Tradition he North Indian–Based Religious Tradition he Modern Challenges International Connections Conclusion Indonesia Religion in Indonesia he Idea of Agama Hindu Hindu Community Of Solidarity, Place and Person he Excellent, Collective and Otherwise Italy Malaysia Mauritius Temples and the Social Structure Modern Developments Conclusion Netherlands Processes of Loss, Maintenance, and Reorientation Successful Integration?

Analysis and Typiication Table of Contents Norway Portugal Migration to Portugal ater Mozambican Independence Adaptation: Economic Integration Sociocultural Integration Russia Singapore South Africa Social History of South African Indians Emergence of Temple Culture A Challenge to Ritualistic Hindu Culture: Neo-Hinduism Bollywood Inluence on Hinduism Recent Non-Resident Indians (NRIs) in South Africa Decision Suriname Religious Reproduction and Collective Formation Postwar Institutionalization Some Speciic Religious Issues Conclusion Sweden Diaspora Hindus and heir Shrines Diaspora Temples in Stockholm Gujaratis in West Sweden Shrines of the Guru Movements Yoga in Sweden Integration, Representation, and Visibility Switzerland Hindu Migrant Communities New Religious Movements with a Hindu Background he Presence of Global Hindu Movements Yoga in Switzerland hailand he hai Brahmans Various Communities of Indian Hindus due to Migration he Hindus’ Position inhai Society Trinidad and Tobago Religion in the Village Setting he New Hinduism of the Postwar Era Conclusion United Kingdom Hinduism in Britain: Sources Hindu Settlement and Communal Development Home and Family National Initiatives and Global Interconnections United States History of Hindu Ideas and Practices Vivekananda and the Ongoing Messages of “Universalism” Yoga History of Hindus in the United States Statistics and Taxonomy of Hindu Institutions in the United States Domestic/Informal Groups Global Organizations Temple Communities Cyber Societies Cultural Groups Temple Hinduism Community Activities Vietnam xi xii Table of Contents Some Modern Religious Groups and Teachers Ad Dharm Mangoo Ram and the Founding Circle he Ideology of a Political Religion Schisms, Census, and an Epic Swift Politics and the Decline of Ad Dharm Ad Dharm Anew Anandamayi Ma Anandamayi Ma’s Animation Ma’s Teachings Anandamayi Ma, an Avatār of Kālī he Human Kālī ater Her Death Ending Aramuga Navalar Life, Activity, and Teaching Criticism of Protestant Missionaries Āgamas and Rituals Caste Images of Navalar Art of Living Foundation he Founder he Teachings Free Education: Ved Vignan Maha Vidya Peeth Transforming Rural India Peace Politics he Future Arya Samaj Origins, Doctrinal Basis, and Early Development he Social Proposal of Aryanism: Education, Caste Reform, and Women’s Uplit he Political Entanglements of the Arya Samaj he Arya Samaj in Independent India and Overseas Aurobindo Preliminary Life Major Works Life during the s and s: the Mother and the Founding of the Āśram hree Formulations of His Yoga Later Life and Writings and Death: – Legacy Bhagwan Shree Rajneesh/Osho he Preliminary Years he First Phase: – Core Teachings under the Various Names Rajneesh Used he Second Phase: he Pune Ᾱśram, – he Disciples in Pune he hird Phase: Passage to America, – he Fourth Phase: he Buddha Returns to Pune, – he Fith Phase: he Contemporary Movement, from he Legacy Bhaktisiddhanta Saraswati Historical Context Early Existence Religious Practice Missionary Work he Gaudiya Math in Europe Crises of Succession Modern Hindu Personalism Studies of Bhaktisiddhanta’s Work Table of Contents Bharat Sevashram Sangha and Swami Pranavanandaji Maharaj he Child Manifestation of Śiva Athletic Asceticism and Brahmacarya Organization Maturation he Divine Guru Bochasanwasi Shri Akshar Purushottam Swaminarayan Sanstha Premature History of BAPS Line of Succession Growth Transnational Growth Brahmo Samaj and Keshub Chandra Sen Chinmayananda and Chinmaya Mission Animation Teachings Organizations Dayananda Saraswati Latest Search for Truth Dayananda’s hought and Philosophy Constructing Vedic Religion Deining Ethical Hinduism Aryans, Āryāvarta, and Unity among Hindus Hindu Nationalism and State Conclusion Female Gurus and Ascetics Women and Classical Deinitions Social Expectations for Women Authority Community Hans Ji Maharaj and the Divya Sandesh Parishad Biography Contested Academic Sources he Teachings of Shri Hans Ji Maharaj he Heritage of Shri Hans Ji Maharaj Hariharananda Aranya Kāpil Guphā (Cave of Kapila) Preparation for Meditation Meditation Conclusion ISKCON and Bhaktivedanta Prabhupada A.C.

Bhaktivedanta Swami (Srila Prabhupada) History and Development Tradition, Doctrines, and Practices ISKCON’s Position About Its Relation to Hinduism Jiddu Krishnamurti Biographical Details Philosophical Foundations Dialogue Education Relationship Krishnamacharya Lakshman Joo Life and Works Philosophy and Spiritual Practice Maharishi Mahesh Yogi and Transcendental Meditation Mahima Dharma and Bhima Bhoi Epic Origins Youth and Initiation First Disciples and the Ᾱśrama in Khaliapali xiii xiv Table of Contents Disappearance and Succession hemes of Bhima Bhoi’s Poetry Bhima Bhoi: he Blind Ascetic?

he Subaltern Voice he Lay Guru Institutional Splits with the Mahima Dharma Movement Mata Amritanandamayi Mission Trust and Embracing he Nature Mata Amritanandamayi Disaster Relief Housing/Care for Children/Fighting Hunger Empowering Women Education Medicine Critics Melmaruvathur Movement Origins of the Temple he Goddess and Bangaru Adigalar Creative Rituals and Tradition he Goddess Focuses on Social Problems Local and Pan-Indian Deity Modern Astrologers Translators and Educators he Appeal to (and of ) Nāḍigranthas Cultural Transmission and Western Practitioners Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi Biography Concepts and Practices he Bhagavadgītā Muktananda and Siddha Yoga he Practices Narayana Guru Life and Learning process Literary Works Philosophy Religious and Social Reforms Radhakrishnan Radhasoamis he Utopian Society of Dayalbagh he Spiritual Kingdom of Beas Ramakrishna he Life and Teachings of Ramakrishna: Primary Sources he Initial Life of Ramakrishna Spiritual Apprenticeship A Brahman Guru and Middle-Class Devotees he Gospel of Ramakrishna Ramakrishna Math and Mission Emic and Etic Literature on the Ramakrishna Math and Mission he Origins and Early Development of the Ramakrishna Math and Mission Landmarks in the Subsequent Training of the Ramakrishna Math and Mission Conclusion Ramana Maharshi Experience and Works Philosophy Rammohun Roy Rammohun’s Life Rammohun’s Works Rammohun’s Ideas Rammohun’s Legacy Table of Contents Sarada Devi Sarada Devi and Sri Ramakrishna Ramakrishna’s Passing and the Emergence of the Holy Mother Her Later Years: Family Anxieties Charisma, Wit, and Wisdom of the Holy Mother Satguru Sivaya Subramuniyaswami Religious Lineage: Kadaitswami, Chellappaswami, and Yogaswami he Hinduism Today Magazine Sathya Sai Baba he Conquest of Death: Charisma in the Imagination, Globalization, and Transcendence Constructing the Revered Person in Indic heology: A Philosophy of Intimate Charisma Sathya Sai Baba’s Life Story, Personhood, and Charisma Extending Sacred Personhood and Charisma heories of Charisma and Sathya Sai Baba’s Personhood: Relationality, Afect, and Persuasiveness Constructing and Deploying Sacred Personhood; Strategies, Narratives, Durabilities, and Logics Beyond Humanity and Divinity: Tactical Captivity and Strategic Liberation Towards Nomadic Charisma Satnamis Satnāmīs in Initial Modern India he Satnampanth of Chhattisgarh Formation of the Satnampanth Critical Elaborations Issues of Gender Questions of Politics Shirdi Sai Baba he Life he Teachings Conclusion Sivananda and the Excellent Life Society Sivananda and M.

Eliade Sivananda and Tantrism Building the Divine Life Society Sivananda and the All-India Tour Creating a Transnational Community: he Holy Life Society and Worldwide Yoga Swadhyaya Movement and Pandurang Shastri Athavale Swadhyaya ater Athavale Swaminarayan and Swaminarayan Hinduism he Existence Story of Sahajanand Swami Swaminarayan Teachings Swaminarayan Social Reform and Discipline Division Transnational expansion Ending Tagore Budding Poet Religious Coaching and Experiences Jīvandevatā, God of Life Public Universalist Hinduism and the Hindu Nation heology of Hindu Modernity he Religion of Man heosophical Society heosophy, Evolution, and Spirituality “No Religion Higher han Truth” Vivekananda Vivekananda’s Animation Points of Contention xv xvi Table of Contents Vivekananda’s Works Vivekananda’s Ideas Vivekananda’s Legacy Vivekananda Kendra Eknath Ranade, the Founder of the Vivekananda Kendra Emic and Etic Literature on the Vivekananda Kendra he Origins and Development of the Vivekananda Kendra Vivekananda Kendra’s Yoga Way of Life Conclusion Yogananda and the Self-Realization Fellowship Early Life in India Traveling Autobiography of a Yogi and Intersections Self-Realization Fellowship: hen and Today Conclusion Appendix Devadāsīs/Courtesans Courtesans between Power, Shame, and Fame Power: he Eye of the Beholder Power: A Logic of Practice Between Shame and Fame: Shame Between Shame and Fame: Fame Power Revisited Hinduism and Dravidian Identity he First Key Moment: he Separation of Brahmans and Non-Brahmans he Second Key Moment: Linking Dravidian Ideology with Tamil Śaivism and Śaiva Siddhānta he Indigenization of Dravidian Ideology P.

Sundaram Pillay (–) J.M. Nallaswami Pillai (–) Maraimalai Adigal (–) Feminism he Woman Question Catalyst by Elite Men Women’s Voices Post-Independence and Post-colonial Feminisms: Methods and Issues Nature and Praxis of Feminism Interventions Nationalism Early Developments Who Is a Hindu?

he Sangh Parivar Conclusion Politics and Media Media and Religion in Colonial India Media heory and Perform in the Era of National Independence A New Phase of Hinduism? Mediatic Diferences and Linguistic Divisions Conclusion Glossary Sections for Future Volumes Radhakrishnan Sir Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan (–) was born in the small town of Tirutani in what was then the Madras Presidency, and he was educated at Christian schools.

From to , he studied at Madras Christian College, which imparted to him both the instinct of tolerance and the interest in achieving a synoptic view of reality and of man’s place in it that would inform his understanding of philosophy as an attempt to realize reality as a whole.

As his MA dissertation, he submitted a work entitled “he Integrity of Vedanta and Its Metaphysical Presuppositions,” which might be seen as setting the tone of much of his subsequent thinking. Indian philosophy is seen as culminating in the thought of → Śaṅkara, the goal of which is the realization of the oneness of the individual selves ( jivātman) with the absolute being (→ brahman).

He considered that the Advaita → Vedānta denial of duality encouraged belief in a harmony among humankind that in turn fostered attitudes of love and fellowship. Even as a student, Radhakrishnan had attributed the depressing political and cultural degradation of his homeland to a passivity induced by indigenous religion.

He reacted by trying to present Advaita Vedānta in a novel and positive light as encouraging individual and social amelioration, not to say the unity of humanity. he notion of → karma, so oten construed in fatalistic terms that inhibited eforts to improve matters, was interpreted as meaning free self-determination and individual responsibility.

Even → caste could be seen as a hierarchy expressive of moral values, in contrast to the amoral and economically determined British class system. It might be noted that Radhakrishnan himself was completely indiferent to caste distinctions and paired practices.

Ater Radhakrishnan occupied a number of academic positions in which he taught philosophy. From to , he was professor of philosophy at Mysore, and in was appointed to the prestigious King George V Chair of Mental and Moral Science at Calcutta University.

From to , he was Spalding Professor of Eastern Religions and Principles at the University of Oxford, where he became Fellow of All Souls College. For most of that time, he also served as vice chancellor of Banaras Hindu University. During those years, Radhakrishnan was prominent as a “public intel- lectual” on the world stage.

Between and , he entered global politics as India’s ambassador to the Soviet Union. In he became a nonparty political vice president of India and was president from to He is among the very few non-British nationals to have been appointed to the Order of Merit () and one of the scant philosophers to have been a head of state.

Radhakrishnan published a vast amount. He was a luent public speaker, and many of his lectures create their way into print. His most signiicant books include he Reign of Religion in Contemporary Philosophy (), two volumes entitled Indian Philosophy (; ), he Hindu View of Life (), An Idealist View of Experience (), and Eastern Religions and Western hought ().

He also produced translations of he Primary Upaniṣads (), the Bhagavad Gītā (), and the Dhammapada (). he Reign of Religion in Contemporary Philosophy, written when he was professor of philosophy at Mysore University, was Radhakrishnan’s irst substantial contribution to philosophy.

he preface begins with a declaration of what was to grow a dominant theme: his publication attempts to show that of the two live philosophies of the present day, pluralistic theism and monistic idealism, the latter is more reasonable as afording the spiritual being of male full satisfaction, moral as successfully as intellectual.

(Radhakrishnan, , i) He goes on to claim that absolute idealism will be the conclusion of philosophical thinking that is free from presuppositions and unbiased by religious interests. By contrast (and utterly implausibly), it is held that the pluralistic systems then current resulted from the infection of sincere speculation by religious prejudice.

What he had in mind is as opaque today as it must have been then. Nothing that could be described as “pluralistic theism” was prevalent in European or American universities. Indeed, theism had been under critical scrutiny by philosophers for three centuries.

Radhakrishnan’s son Sarvepalli Gopal in Radhakrishnan: A Biography wrote that his father was thinking of the inluence of Christian beliefs on Western thought (, 39–44). Illustrating its author’s catholicity of interests, the book is a Radhakrishnan collection of essays critical of the various forms of realism propounded by G.W.

Leibniz, H. Bergson, W. James, and B. Russell. It must be said that the minds of the latter two were not exactly distorted by theistic prejudices. Radhakrishnan says that he is not making a positive and deliberate attempt to found an idealist system here and that the work is intended as an extended critique of various pluralistic systems of idea.

he promise that there would be a defense of absolute idealism came to fruition in An Idealist View of Experience (). But the concluding chapter of he Reign of Religion in Contemporary Philosophy, “Suggestions of an Approach to Reality based on the Upanishads,” sets the tone of much subsequent reflection.

Here Radhakrishnan treats philosophical problems in the light of the truths held to have been intuited by seers and formulated in the → Upaniṣads. He turned to those visionary compositions in search of some concepts by which the dominant contemporary materialism and secularism could be challenged.

he publication of the two volumes of Indian Philosophy in and inaugurated a drawn-out and mutually beneicial association with the Allen & Unwin publishing company. hese books were and still are valuable contributions to comparative philosophy and religion.

hey show their author to be a remarkable igure who did more than any of his contemporaries to acquaint the peoples of Europe with Indian traditions of thought. his he did through luent presentations of Indian doctrines and arguments in terms that would make them absorbing and accessible to Western readers.

Radhakrishnan was striving to convey to life the ideas of thinkers belonging to the classical Hindu and Buddhist schools not only by understanding them in their original contexts but also with reference to parallel patterns of thought in the European traditions.

He believed that ideas were to be understood in context, as expressions of the spirit of their age.

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He was indeed a practitioner of the historical method that his admirer R.G. Collingwood would later characterize as the reenactment of past thoughts in the historian’s thought. he extent to which Radhakrishnan was taken seriously as a thinker and exponent of Indian ideas is indicated by the fact that the irst volume of Indian Philosophy was favorably reviewed by B.

Russell. An Idealist View of Life, based on the Hibbert Lectures delivered in Manchester and London in and , was published in Much of Radhakrishnan’s work until then had been largely expository, but this was a developed statement of Radhakrishnan’s own philosophical views.

he book as a whole may be seen as an idiosyncratic interpretation of Advaita Vedānta in categories familiar to educated Western Europeans, especially those sympathetic to absolute idealism and “Platonized” versions of Christianity. he book confronts the modern skeptical predicament while breathing the atmosphere of 19th-century liberal conidence.

he problems are seen as ideological ones that may be remedied by intellectual solutions. It is as though World War I had not happened. Nevertheless, there is evident a profound realization that religious problems are no longer of the order of whether Jesus performed miracles or whether any scripture can be truly said to be infallible.

As he put it in the précis of An Idealist View of Life, All these problems have changed their definition and are dependent on the one and only problem, whether there is or is not behind the phenomena of innateness and the drama of history an unseen spiritual power, whether the universe is meaningful or meaningless, whether it is God or chance.

(Radhakrishnan & Muirhead, , ) By “an idealist,” Radhakrishnan means one who believes that the cosmos as a whole has meaning and purpose rather than the philosopher who maintains that what we phone reality is constituted by our mental constructions and that matter depends on mind but not vice versa.

Idealism concerns the ultimate nature of reality, whatever may be its relation to the knowing mind . . . It makes life signiicant and purposeful . . . Philosophy is understanding . . . and a philosopher can ind no rest until he gains a view or vision of the world of things and persons which will empower him to interpret the manifold of experiences as expressive of a purpose.

(Radhakrishnan, , 3) his attitude, which arises from what Radhakrishnan calls the “primal and inextinguishable craving for the eternal and abiding,” has a long, continuous, and various history of expressions in both eastern and Western cultures.

Radhakrishnan indeed inhabited the land of the philosophia perennis with other elevated spiritual beings who were free from dogmatism and intolerance. he book begins with a survey of the myriad modern challenges to religion, especially those  Radhakrishnan posed by those positivistic sciences whose methods include an insistence that only that which has been veriied by visible evidence counts as knowledge, thereby discounting the validity of intuitive knowledge.

he challenges arise from disciplines and schools of consideration as various as behaviorism, social anthropology, astrophysics, and evolutionary naturalism, not to mention É. Durkheim and S. Freud. One thing that these outlooks have in common is that they scrutinize the privileged status, even the uniqueness, of human beings in the natural scheme of things.

Another is that they search to explain religious attitudes and religious behavior in what are alien and sometimes hostile categories. Reference is also made to the destructive efects of biblical criticism on traditional “particularist” Christian beliefs as well as the efects of philosophical skepticism about the validity of the theistic proofs for God’s existence, not to mention the rationality of believing that there is a supernatural realm of being.

It is striking in this context to note that no state is made of World War I. If we are looking for reasons for disbelief, we deserve look no further than the experience of this gigantic, pointless slaughter on the battleields of Europe.

It was that disaster that sounded the death knell for 19th-century idealism and for many people put paid to belief in a benevolent deity who responded to prayer. Radhakrishnan’s concern is with those who want to believe but ind themselves incapable of believing.

hat his contemporaries were seeking ways of escape from the instinct of supericiality and loss occasioned by skepticism was a regular theme. “heir doubt is an expression of piety” (Radhakrishnan, , 42). he second chapter is critical of sundry “substitutes for religion” that may appeal to such seekers ater truth.

he latter appear to be drawn from the ranks of “intellectual aristocrats” (a witty nod to Russell!) with their naturalistic stoic-pagan creed.

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We are told that as a substitute for religion, the stoic pagan creed is rather frail. “We cannot live if we do not recover our faith in life and the universe” (Radhakrishnan, , 47). he alternative to religion is disintegration – personal, intellectual, and social (and here one is reminded of the etymological sense of the word “religio,” with which Radhakrishnan was presumably familiar).

Radhakrishnan writes about a variety of intellectual stances (humanism, atheism, agnosticism, and skepticism) that are presented as substitutes for lost faith (or “ways of escape from the present confusions” [Radhakrishnan, , 44]).

It may be the case that some people treat, for instance, humanism (especially when construed as a program for social reform) as their creed.

Dr. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, an academic, philosopher, and statesman was born on September 5, in a Brahmin family lived at Tiruttani, a very small temple town to the North-West of Madras (a t present Chennai).

But for the most part, the positions under consideration are neither substitutes for nor alternatives to religious belief. hey are rejections of it. It is, however, decisive to Radhakrishnan’s overall strategy that those theories be treated as deviant forms of religious promise , inviting replacement by his better version of idealism.

hat spiritual idealism – located in disagreement to, on the one hand, scientiic naturalism with its disintegrative tendency and, on the other, religious dogmatism enforced by ecclesiastical hierarchies – was the authentic remedy for the frightening perception of individual isolation in a cosmos indiferent to human aspirations and an antidote to the specter of transience that, while evacuating everything temporal of essence, denies that there is anything else.

What does Radhakrishnan signify by religion or spiritual idealism? It is more than feeling, ritual, beliefs, or consciousness of value. It is an endeavor to discover the ideal possibilities of human life . . . It is not genuine religion unless it ceases to be a traditional view and becomes personal experience .

. . It is something inward and personal which uniies all values and organizes all experiences. It is the reaction of the whole man to the whole reality . . . he spiritual sense, the sense for the real, is not satisied with anything less than the absolute and the unending.

(Radhakrishnan, , 84) here are many religious traditions because their historical founders enjoyed diferent personal experiences and original visions of the divine. Religion is the universal or kind of which the various individual traditions are instances.

he universal has here the form of an life had by an integral, undivided consciousness in which distinctions are transcended as feelings are fused and ideas melt into one another. his is, of course, a reinterpretation of the advaitic account of the liberating and liberated consciousness.

he experience is a direct intuitive encounter with reality and as such authenticates itself.

Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan history | PDF - Scribd: Radhakrishnan, S. (Sarvepalli), , Radhakrishnan, Sarvepalli, Presidents -- India -- Biography, Presidents, India, Philosophy Publisher Delhi ; New York: Oxford University Press.

But it is soon confused, whereupon its subject adopts an attitude of faith. he first experiences, the elevated perceptions of spiritual geniuses, while inefable in themselves, are undergone by people occupying particular historical environments and are Radhakrishnan subsequently articulated in diverse doctrinal formulas and symbols.

Such interpretations are the vehicles of communication. hey are easily confused with the original life and become the objects of the rationalist’s critique. It was a constant refrain that the original experiences of the mystics are broadly similar: encounters with an ultimate reality that is discovered within and discernments of objective values against which all inite evaluations may be measured.

Of course, this universalism is scarcely sustainable, except as an article of faith. If veridical spiritual insight is a matter of personal experience, one cannot establish whether another person’s interaction with ultimate reality is the same as or similar to one’s own because one does not share the personal experiences of others.

So any claim that mystical experience is uniform is groundless. Still the individual’s original experience is one of union with the divine. In this moment of supreme intuition, the soul is aware not just of its own being alive, but of the omnipotent essence of which it is a focussing.

(Radhakrishnan, , ) he unity of man and God is the fundamental thesis of the great philosophic tradition that has come down to us from the Upaniṣads and Plato, Aristotle, Plotinus, Śaṃ kara, Spinoza, Bradley and a host of other are witness to it.

(Radhakrishnan, , ) his is airmed by the great chat from the Chāndogya Upaniṣad, tat tvam asi. Paul, Plotinus, Descartes, Eckhart and Augustine say the same thing when they relate of the unity of dude and God (Radhakrishnan, , ). God is a symbol in which religion cognizes the Absolute.

(Radhakrishnan, , ) God is the deinitisation of the Absolute in reference to the principles of the world . . . there are features of our religious experience which oblige us to look upon God as attributes. From this show of view God is a personal being with whom we can enter into a personal relationship.

(Radhakrishnan, , ) his theology may be seen as a version of the advaitic presentation, for devotional purposes, of the featureless brahman as a personal deity, called → Īśvara, who creates the world and sometimes intervenes in it.

It is the assertion of the self that has created a gulf between God and men. his divorce is variously described as “the fall” or → avidyā. Religion aims to abolish the gulf between man and God by restoring the missing sense of unity.

Religion involves self-realization, understood as the elevation of the empirical ego ( jīva) onto a transcendental plane. Religion insists that one follows an ethical code and meditative discipline (the way to selfdiscovery) in order to recover the original state.

he advaitic notion of → jīvanmukti (liberation while still living in the world) is invoked. “Feeling the togetherness of himself and the existence, the man who lives in spirit is no more a separate and selfcentred individual; but a vehicle of the universal spirit” (Radhakrishnan, , ).

Radhakrishnan was stung by the claim made by many, including A. Schweitzer (who had read P. Deussen on the Upaniṣads), that “Indian mysticism” had no interest in ethical values. He argued that the concept of the jīvanmukti meant that the liberated person was committed to promoting the welfare of others through selless action.

It must be said that this interpretation seems to many a trile strained. Radhakrishnan was a resolute opponent of what he saw as dogmatic religious exclusivism asserting that there is no salvation outside the church or the cult.

he hostile remarks in Eastern Religions and Western hought directed at the theology of his contemporary K. Barth, who regarded all forms of religion as idolatrous strivings ater a god made in our own image, speak for themselves and execute not measure up to the standards of rationality that Radhakrishnan usually observes.

It is worth adding that his cultivated idealist attitude to concrete traditions of belief and practice was current among the previous generation of European and British intellectuals. In the words of Lord Curzon, All creeds, dogmas and formulae are subordinate [to the conception of an absolute deity] .

. . Jesus Christ takes his place alongside Buddha as the preacher of a unique and sublimated ethics and as the type of perfect humanity. (cited in Rose, , 95) By contrast to those “exclusivists” who believed that only the tenets of their own tradition were true, Radhakrishnan claimed that those who are anchored in the centre of all creature know that every religion is a response  Radhakrishnan to a divine condescension that has uplited us.

he diferent traditions are like so many languages in which the simple truths of religion are expressed.

To learn more, view our Privacy Policy. To browse Academia. Sarvepalli Gopal's "Radhakrishnan: A Biography" suggestions a unique insight into the life and scholarly contributions of Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, an influential figure in Indian philosophy and latest intellectual history. The biography provides a narrative focused on Radhakrishnan's public career, drawing from personal knowledge, letters, and unpublished sources, while also touching upon his challenges and successes in a largely Western academic landscape.

(Radhakrishnan, , ) Self-realization or spiritual insight results from individual efort and thus is not tied to any one community of faith. his efort culminates in a divinization variously called nirvāṇ a, the kingdom of heaven, mokṣa (→ liberation), and (by Platonists) the untroubled perception of the pure idea.

It is no easy matter and requires rebirth in a long series of lives. Indeed, such contemplation is a real possibility only for people of superior reinement and sensibility.

To learn more, view our Privacy Policy. To browse Academia. The paper explores the philosophical contributions of Sir Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, particularly through his work "The Reign of Religion in Contemporary Philosophy. International Journal For Multidisciplinary Research,

Experience suggests that such cultivation must surely be the fruit of more than one life. he next chapter of An Idealist View of Life surveys a range of philosophical opinions about instinct and defends the view that there is an autonomous faculty of intuition.

his is essential because Radhakrishnan was committed to the view that the modes of valid cognition are not restricted to sensory perception and the logical analysis of concepts. he argument is that with reference to some given articulate of afairs, the empirical acquisition of data and the intellectual analysis of that information in concepts presuppose an intuitive appreciation of the state of afairs as a whole.

Moreover, unproved irst principles are known by intuition. So there are reasons for thinking that intuition is a distinct faculty. Intuition is not opposed to rational intellection but goes beyond it. Spiritual apprehension or the kind of awareness of real values which are neither objects in room and time nor universals of thought is called intuition .

. .

Sarvepalli Gopal's "Radhakrishnan: A Biography" offers a singular insight into the life and scholarly contributions of Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, an influential figure in Indian philosophy and modern intellectual history.

he objects of intuition are recognised and not created by us. (Radhakrishnan & Muirhead, , ) Religion is a create of contact with ultimate life. It is the apprehension of something greater than the individual. It is an experiential realization of one’s union with the divine.

All these are exercises of intuition. It is thanks to this faculty that those who are anchored in the center of all being realize that every religion is a response to divine condescension. hese are ambitious claims, but they are essential given the weight that Radhakrishnan places on purely personal experience and inspiration as a reliable guide to truth: While I was greatly stimulated by the minds of all those whom I have studied, my thinking does not comply with any ixed traditional pattern.

For my thinking has another source and proceeded from my own experience . . . It is born of spiritual experience. Philosophy is produced by our encounter with reality. (Schilpp, , 10) he doctrine of karma, discussed in chapter 7 of An Idealist View of Life, is understood in terms of the individual’s relation to the past.

Each unique and self-conscious human being is a portion of the universal innateness. Our individual natures are products of what has gone before. It is the law of karma that regulates human development. he moral efects of our deed are expressed as our characters.

It is our retain acts that make us what we are by forming our dispositions. So life is not at the mercy of either chance or fate. He contends that karma is not a principle of retribution, understood in juridical terms as a system of rewards and punishment, but one of continuity.

It is appealed to as an explanation of why an individual inds himself or herself wherever it is that he or she happens to be placed in the human world. It also provides a rationale for efort directed at the improvement of one’s lot, because nature will respond to spirit or the creative power in a person.

He accepted the theory that nature is ever striving to attain yet higher levels of being. his urge becomes rational in the one who deliberately seeks for ordered progress. In this way, nature cooperates with spirit, and natural causality does not impede the freedom of one who would actively fashion the future.

he past may become either an opportunity or an obstacle. Everything depends on what we make of it and not what it makes of us . . . Life is like a game of bridge. he cards in the game are given to us. We do not handpick them. hey are traced to past karma but we are free to make any name as we think it .

. . till the very end there is always a choice. (Radhakrishnan, , ) Where the notion of rebirth is concerned, Radhakrishnan argued that if it is granted that animation is developmental and progressive (“man is always evolving” [Radhakrishnan, , ]), then it is justified to assume that on the human level, development of singular individuality would appear to be the end in view.

If there is scope for endless improvement, then future lives will Radhakrishnan aford opportunities for the exercise of unspent potentialities. From the s on, it was a favorite theme that humankind was still in the process of becoming and that there were accordingly grounds for optimism that the future would be better than the past.

Radhakrishnan believed that it made instinct to think in terms of the universe as a whole. he universe as a totality has purpose and value, and human history is a meaningful process. Ideal values are dynamic forces that drive the existence to an ultimately good conclusion.

But the success of science and technology had a tendency to distract people from spiritual values. It had a disintegrative efect: on the one hand, individuals and nations pursued their own prosperity, heedless of the common good, and, on the other, people discarded as superstitions the beliefs that had hitherto held them together.

He envisaged a spiritual revolution whereby people everywhere, no longer blinkered by dogmatic sectarian ailiations, would split in the intuitive apprehension of the divine. In furtherance of this aim, the spiritual reconciliation of humankind, he lectured in Oxford and elsewhere on what he took to be the highest expressions of religious idea to be found in Greece, Palestine, and India.

hese lectures were published in under the title Eastern Religions and Western hought. Radhakrishnan did not fictional that the historical forms of the diferent faiths under consideration were interchangeable. Rather, they were diferent approaches to the alike summit: intuitive awareness of a transcendent reality that is the source of all value.

We must evolve ideas, habits and sentiments which would enable us to build up a society community . . . he supreme task of our generation is to give a spirit to the growing worldconsciousness, to develop ideals and institutions necessary for the creative expression of the world-soul.

(Radhakrishnan, , viii) For all its erudition, the work is oblivious to the threat posed by the expansionist ambitions of Teutonic nationalism. he enemy, as ever, is the materialist view of life. Radhakrishnan, as he would have been the irst to acknowledge, was a child of his period.

A highly educated and subtle thinker, he was appalled by what he saw as the intellectual degeneracy and cultural subservience of his homeland. His response was an attempt to revive self-respect and conidence of the people of India by trying to show that the more sublime insights of Western mind had also been expressed by their forebears belonging to the tradition of Advaita Vedānta.

It is arguable that Radhakrishnan’s version of Advaita Vedānta owed not a little to his artistic imagination. He belongs to that tradition of Indian savants who responded to Western dominance with the assertion that while Europeans enjoyed material superiority, they were inferior to Indians in terms of spirituality.

His real achievement was to bring Indian reflection in all its richness to the attention of Western audiences who might otherwise have remained dismissive of the intellectual accomplishments of the people of the subcontinent.

By the same token, he thereby contributed to the restoration of Indian national identity festival. Bibliography Collingwood, R.G., An Autobiography, Oxford, Gopal, S., Radhakrishnan: A Biography, Delhi, Radhakrishnan, S., Eastern Religions and Western hought, Oxford, Radhakrishnan, S., An Idealist View of Life, London, Radhakrishnan, S., Indian Philosophy, vol.

II, London, Radhakrishnan, S., Indian Philosophy, vol. I, London, Radhakrishnan, S., he Reign of Religion in Contemporary Philosophy, London, Radhakrishnan, S., & J.H. Muirhead, Contemporary Indian Philosophy, London, Rose, K., Curzon: A Most Superior Person, London, Russell, B., “Philosophy in India and China,” TNA 33, , – Schilpp, P., he Philosophy of Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, New York, Christopher Bartley